ESA Science & Technology - Publication Archive

A striking feature of the atmosphere of Titan is that no heavy noble gases other than argon were detected by the Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer aboard the Huygens probe during its descent to Titan's surface in 2005 January. Here we provide an explanation of the mysterious absence or rarity of these noble gases in Titan's atmosphere: the thermodynamic conditions prevailing at the surface-atmosphere interface of the satellite allow the formation of multiple guest clathrates that preferentially store some species, including all heavy noble gases, over others. The clean water ice needed for the formation of these clathrates could be delivered by successive episodes of cryovolcanic lavas that have been hypothesized to regularly cover the surface of Titan. The formation of clathrates in the porous lavas and their propensity for trapping Ar, Kr, and Xe would progressively remove these species from the atmosphere of Titan over the course of its history. In some circumstances, a global clathrate crust with an average thickness not exceeding a few meters could be sufficient on Titan for a complete removal of the heavy noble gases from the atmosphere.

We present the deepest 100 to 500 micron far-infrared observations obtained with the Herschel Space Observatory as part of the GOODS-Herschel key program, and examine the infrared (IR) 3-500 micron spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of galaxies at 0 < z < 2.5, supplemented by a local reference sample from IRAS, ISO, Spitzer and AKARI data. We determine the projected star formation densities of local galaxies from their radio and mid-IR continuum sizes. We find that the ratio of total IR luminosity to rest-frame 8 micron luminosity, IR8 (=L^tot_IR/L₈), follows a Gaussian distribution centered on IR8=4 (sigma=1.6) and defines an IR main sequence for star-forming galaxies independent of redshift and luminosity. Outliers from this main sequence produce a tail skewed toward higher values of IR8. This minority population (<20%) is shown to consist of starbursts with compact projected star formation densities. IR8 can be used to separate galaxies with normal and extended modes of star formation from compact starbursts with high-IR8, high projected IR surface brightness (Sigma_IR>3×10¹⁰ L_Sunkpc^-2) and a high specific star formation rate (i.e., starbursts). The rest-frame, UV-2700 Angstrom size of these distant starbursts is typically half that of main sequence galaxies, supporting the correlation between star formation density and starburst activity that is measured for the local sample.
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We present the first Herschel PACS and SPIRE results of the Vela C molecular complex in the far-infrared and submillimetre regimes at 70, 160, 250, 350, and 500 micron, spanning the peak of emission of cold prestellar or protostellar cores. Column density and multi-resolution analysis (MRA) differentiates the Vela C complex into five distinct sub-regions. Each sub-region displays differences in their column density and temperature probability distribution functions (PDFs), in particular, the PDFs of the "Centre-Ridge" and "South-Nest" sub-regions appear in stark contrast to each other. The Centre-Ridge displays a bimodal temperature PDF representative of hot gas surrounding the HII region RCW 36 and the cold neighbouring filaments, whilst the South-Nest is dominated by cold filamentary structure. The column density PDF of the Centre-Ridge is flatter than the South-Nest, with a high column density tail, consistent with formation through large-scale flows, and regulation by self-gravity. At small to intermediate scales MRA indicates the Centre-Ridge to be twice as concentrated as the South-Nest, whilst on larger scales, a greater portion of the gas in the South-Nest is dominated by turbulence than in the Centre-Ridge. In Vela C, high-mass stars appear to be preferentially forming in ridges, i.e., dominant high column density filaments.

We present new Herschel/PACS images at 70, 100, and 160 micron of the well-known, nearby, carbon-rich asymptotic giant branch star IRC+10216 revealing multiple dust shells in its circumstellar envelope. For the first time, dust shells (or arcs) are detected until 320". The almost spherical shells are non-concentric and have an angular extent between ~40° and ~200°. The shells have a typical width of 5"-8", and the shell separation varies in the range of ~10"-35", corresponding to ~500 -1700 yr. Local density variations within one arc are visible. The shell/intershell density contrast is typically ~4, and the arcs contain some 50% more dust mass than the smooth envelope. The observed (nested) arcs record the mass-loss history over the past 16 000 yr, but Rayleigh-Taylor and Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities in the turbulent astropause and astrosheath will erase any signature of the mass-loss history for at least the first 200 000 yr of mass loss. Accounting for the bowshock structure, the envelope mass around IRC+10216 contains >2 solar masses of gas and dust mass. It is argued that the origin of the shells is related to non-isotropic mass-loss events and clumpy dust formation.

Published online in Science Express, 7 July 2011. We report far-infrared and submillimeter observations of Supernova 1987A, the star that exploded on 23 February 1987 in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a galaxy located 160 000 light years away. The observations reveal the presence of a population of cold dust grains radiating with a temperature of about 17 to 23 K at a rate of about 220 L_Sun. The intensity and spectral energy distribution of the emission suggests a dust mass of about 0.4 to 0.7 M_Sun. The radiation must originate from the supernova ejecta and requires the efficient precipitation of all refractory material into dust. Our observations imply that supernovae can produce the large dust masses detected in young galaxies at very high redshifts.

Significant advances have been made in the understanding of the diffuse Galactic hard X-ray continuum emission using data from the INTEGRAL observatory. The diffuse hard power-law component seen with the SPectrometer on INTEGRAL (SPI) has been identified with inverse-Compton emission from relativistic (GeV) electrons on the cosmic microwave background and Galactic interstellar radiation field. In the present analysis, SPI data from 2003 to 2009, with a total exposure time of ~10⁸ s, are used to derive the Galactic ridge hard X-ray spatial distribution and spectrum between 20 keV and 2.4 MeV. Both are consistent with predictions from the GALPROP code. The good agreement between measured and predicted emission from keV to GeV energies suggests that the correct production mechanisms have been identified. We discuss the potential of the SPI data to provide an indirect probe of the interstellar cosmic-ray electron distribution, in particular for energies below a few GeV.

This issue of Spatium is devoted to Professor Johannes Geiss, cofounder of PRO ISSI and spiritus rector of ISSI, on the occasion of his 85th anniversary on 4 September 2011.

Pc3 pulsations are observed in the magnetosphere with wave periods of 10-45 s. Two distinct populations have been observed; one exhibits a frequency dependence on the solar wind magnetic field strength, whereas the other does not. The first population is explained in terms of a model where the bow shock reflects ions which generate upstream foreshock ULF waves. These waves are convected through the shock to the dayside magnetopause and thus to the magnetosphere. The source of the second population is not well understood. In this paper we examine the generation of a transient patch of Pc3 wave activity due to a hot flow anomaly (HFA) using a unique spacecraft conjunction that occurred during the first Earth flyby of the Rosetta spacecraft. Cluster, upstream of the bow shock and close to the Sun-Earth line observed an HFA. At this time Rosetta was nearing closest approach and together with ground magnetometer stations, observed a transient interval of Pc3 wave activity. Analysis also shows that the Pc3 waves occurred in the absence of a ULF wavefield just upstream of the bow shock. This result shows that HFAs can be a source of Pc3 wave activity, and may explain in part the origin of the second population of Pc3 waves. It also demonstrates in new detail the manner in which kinetic physics at the bow shock, driven by structure in the solar wind, can influence magnetospheric dynamics.

The origin of the Martian moons, Phobos and Deimos, is still an open issue: either they are asteroids captured by Mars or they formed in situ from a circum-Mars debris disk. The capture scenario mainly relies on the remote-sensing observations of their surfaces, which suggest that the moon material is similar to outer-belt asteroid material. This scenario, however, requires high tidal dissipation rates inside the moons to account for their current orbits around Mars. Although the in situ formation scenarios have not been studied in great details, no observational constraints argue against them. Little attention has been paid to the internal structure of the moons, yet it is pertinent for explaining their origin. The low density of the moons indicates that their interior contains significant amounts of porous material and/or water ice. The porous content is estimated to be in the range of 30-60% of the volume for both moons. This high porosity enhances the tidal dissipation rate but not sufficiently to meet the requirement of the capture scenario. On the other hand, a large porosity is a natural consequence of re-accretion of debris at Mars' orbit, thus providing support to the in situ formation scenarios. The low density also allows for abundant water ice inside the moons, which might significantly increase the tidal dissipation rate in their interiors, possibly to a sufficient level for the capture scenario. Precise measurements of the rotation and gravity field of the moons are needed to tightly constrain their internal structure in order to help answering the question of the origin.

Aims. In an attempt to catch new X-ray transients while they are still bright, the data taken by XMM-Newton as it slews between targets are being processed and cross-correlated with other X-ray observations as soon as the slew data appear in the XMM-Newton archive.
Methods. A bright source, XMMSL1 J070542.7-381442, was detected on 9 Oct. 2007 at a position where no previous X-ray source had been seen. The XMM slew data and optical data acquired with the Magellan Clay 6.5 m telescope were used to classify the new object.
Results. No XMM slew X-ray counts are detected above 1 keV and the source is seen to be ~750 times brighter than the ROSAT All-Sky Survey upper limit at that position. The normally m_V ~ 16 star, USNO-A2.0 0450-03360039, which lies 3.5' from the X-ray position, was seen in our Magellan data to be very much enhanced in brightness. Our optical spectrum showed emission lines that identified the source as a nova in the auroral phase; hence, this optical source is undoubtedly the progenitor of the X-ray source - a new nova (now also known as V598 Pup). The X-ray spectrum indicates that the nova was in a super-soft state (with kT_eff 35 eV). We estimate the distance to the nova to be ~3 kpc. Analysis of archival robotic optical survey data shows a rapid-decline light curve consistent with what is expected for a very fast nova.
Conclusions. The XMM-Newton slew data present a powerful opportunity to find new X-ray transient objects while they are still bright. Here we present the first such source discovered by the analysis of near real-time slew data.

A key prediction of turbulence theories is frame-invariance, and in magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) turbulence, axisymmetry of fluctuations with respect to the background magnetic field. Paradoxically the power in fluctuations in the turbulent solar wind are observed to be ordered with respect to the bulk macroscopic flow as well as the background magnetic field. Here, nonaxisymmetry across the inertial and dissipation ranges is quantified using in situ observations from Cluster. The observed inertial range nonaxisymmetry is reproduced by a "fly through" sampling of a direct numerical simulation of MHD turbulence. Furthermore, fly through sampling of a linear superposition of transverse waves with axisymmetric fluctuations generates the trend in nonaxisymmetry with power spectral exponent. The observed nonaxisymmetric anisotropy may thus simply arise as a sampling effect related to Taylor's hypothesis and is not related to the plasma dynamics itself.

Sunspots are regions where strong magnetic fields emerge from the solar interior and where major eruptive events occur. These energetic events can cause power outages, interrupt telecommunication and navigation services, and pose hazards to astronauts. We detected subsurface signatures of emerging sunspot regions before they appeared on the solar disc. Strong acoustic travel-time anomalies of an order of 12 to 16 seconds were detected as deep as 65,000 kilometers. These anomalies were associated with magnetic structures that emerged with an average speed of 0.3 to 0.6 kilometer per second and caused high peaks in the photospheric magnetic flux rate 1 to 2 days after the detection of the anomalies. Thus, synoptic imaging of subsurface magnetic activity may allow anticipation of large sunspot regions before they become visible, improving space weather forecast.

We present a deep study of the average hard X-ray spectra of Seyfert galaxies. We aim to test the unified model of active galactic nuclei, and constrain differences and similarities between different classes of objects. We analyzed all public INTEGRAL IBIS/ISGRI data available on all the 165 Seyfert galaxies detected at z < 0.2. Our final sample consists of 44 Seyfert 1s, 29 Seyfert 1.5s, 78 Seyfert 2s, and 14 narrow-line Seyfert 1s. For each subsample, we stacked all the images, and derived their average hard X-ray spectra in the 17-250 keV energy range. We performed a detailed spectral analysis using both a model-independent and a model-dependent approach. All classes of Seyfert galaxies show on average the same nuclear continuum, as foreseen by the zeroth order unified model, with a cutoff energy of E_C >~ 200 keV, and a photon index of Gamma~1.8. The average optical depth of the Comptonizing medium is consistent for the different classes (tau~0.8). Compton-thin Seyfert 2s show a reflection component stronger than Seyfert 1s and Seyfert 1.5s. Most of this reflection is due to mildly obscured (10²³ cm^-2 <= N_H < 10²⁴ cm^-2) Seyfert2s, which have a significantly stronger reflection component (R = 2.2^+4.5_-1.1) than Seyfert 1s (R <= 0.4), Seyfert 1.5s (R <= 0.4) and lightly obscured (N_H < 10²³ cm^-2) Seyfert 2s (R <= 0.5). This cannot be explained easily by the unified model. The absorber/reflector in mildly obscured Seyfert 2s might cover a large fraction of the X-ray source, and contain clumps of Compton-thick material. The large reflection found in the spectrum of mildly obscured Seyfert 2s reduces the amount of Compton-thick objects needed to explain the peak of the cosmic X-ray background. Our results are consistent with the fraction of Compton-thick sources being ~10 percent.
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Comparative planetology has long been a field of general interest but with a fairly small number of scientists actively involved. During the last decade, until recently, there has been no significant growth, possibly much due to lack of new data from Venus; perhaps the most obvious planet to compare with the Earth. Availability of ample data of high quality is of paramount importance for proper comparisons. With the arrival of Venus Express at Venus in March 2006 a new impulse to the field has been injected. Venus Express addresses a large number of topics relevant to comparative planetology; in particular in the field of atmospheric dynamics and chemistry, clouds and atmospheresolar wind interaction.

Mars has been the subject of significant interest and many space missions in the recent years. Being smaller and cooler and in several aspects more evolved, Mars is still a planet of great interest for comparison with the Earth on the other end of the parameter space.

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We report observations of three rotational transitions of molecular oxygen (O₂) in emission from the H₂ Peak 1 position of vibrationally excited molecular hydrogen in Orion. We observed the 487 GHz, 774 GHz, and 1121 GHz lines using HIFI on the Herschel Space Observatory, having velocities of 11 km s^-1 to 12 km s^-1 and widths of 3 km s^-1. The beam-averaged column density is N(O₂) = 6.5×10¹⁶ cm^-2, and assuming that the source has an equal beam filling factor for all transitions (beam widths 44, 28, and 19'), the relative line intensities imply a kinetic temperature between 65 K and 120 K. The fractional abundance of O₂ relative to H₂ is 0.3-7.3×10^-6. The unusual velocity suggests an association with a ~5' diameter source, denoted Peak A, the Western Clump, or MF4. The mass of this source is ~10 M_Sun and the dust temperature is >= 150 K. Our preferred explanation of the enhanced O₂ abundance is that dust grains in this region are sufficiently warm (T >= 100 K) to desorb water ice and thus keep a significant fraction of elemental oxygen in the gas phase, with a significant fraction as O₂. For this small source, the line ratios require a temperature >= 180 K. The inferred O₂ column density ~5×10¹⁸ cm^-2 can be produced in Peak A, having N(H₂) ~4×10²⁴ cm^-2. An alternative mechanism is a low-velocity (10 to 15 km s^-1) C-shock, which can produce N(O₂) up to 10¹⁷ cm^-2.

The propagation of reconnection signatures and their associated energy are examined using kinetic particle-in-cell simulations and Cluster satellite observations. It is found that the quadrupolar out-of-plane magnetic field near the separatrices is associated with a kinetic Alfvén wave. For magnetotail parameters, the parallel propagation of this wave is super-Alfvénic (V_||<~1500-5500 km/s) and generates substantial Poynting flux (S~10^-5-10^-4 W/m²) consistent with Cluster observations of magnetic reconnection. This Poynting flux substantially exceeds that due to frozen-in ion bulk outflows and is sufficient to generate white light aurora in Earth's ionosphere.

Atmospheric angular momentum variations of a planet are associated with the global atmospheric mass redistribution and the wind variability. The exchange of angular momentum between the fluid layers and the solid planet is the main cause for the variations of the planetary rotation at seasonal time scales. In the present study, we investigate the angular momentum variations of the Earth, Mars and Venus, using geodetic observations, output of state-of-the-art global circulation models as well as assimilated data. We discuss the similarities and differences in angular momentum variations, planetary rotation and angular momentum exchange for the three terrestrial planets. We show that the atmospheric angular momentum variations for Mars and Earth are mainly annual and semi-annual whereas they are expected to be "diurnal" on Venus. The wind terms have the largest contributions to the LOD changes of the Earth and Venus whereas the matter term is dominant on Mars due to the CO₂ sublimation/condensation. The corresponding LOD variations (DLOD) have similar amplitudes on Mars and Earth but are much larger on Venus, though more difficult to observe.

This review is intended to help prepare a new stage of wave studies in the context of magnetic reconnection. Various results that have accumulated would not let the two-dimensional, steady and laminar magnetic reconnection to remain as the standard model. Emphasis on three-dimensional, temporally varying, and turbulent effects is growing and this fact tells that the effects of waves in various frequency ranges deserve further attention in the context of magnetic reconnection. In this review, by setting a perspective, selected recent topics are reviewed and the ways in which these can be viewed as the stepping stones towards a new research horizon of magnetic reconnection are discussed.

Reference: ESA/SRE(2011)14

This report, the so-called Red Book, presents an overview of the Solar Orbiter mission in its present state of advanced definition. Solar Orbiter is a medium-size (M-class) mission of the ESA Cosmic Vision 2015-2025 programme, and competes for one of the two launch slots foreseen in 2017 and 2018.

Summary of the study performed at ESA's Concurrent Design Facility (CDF), with the goals to:

1. Assess the technical feasibility of the ECHO mission proposal
2. Design an example mission compatible with achieving the science goals